"Every good human quality is related to a bad one into which it threatens to pass over; and every bad quality is similarly related to a good one."
[Schopenhauer]
What are the origins of journalistic values? Are values professional correlates of journalistic expertise or lay values which originate outside of the profession? In the area of social responsibility there is no general framework that can be applied to specific decisions. Identifying values in the news is virtually an impossible task because there are so many. Values contained in the news are not necessarily those of the journalist, not always characteristic of the news, usually not explicit and must be found in what people and activities are reported, described or ignored. Values enter the news in the form of reality judgments or assumptions about external reality associated with concepts which journalists use.
Reality judgments and values come from personal experience and background; while value judgments are comprised of the personal taste and assumptions by which certain social groups exercise and maintain power over others. For Friedrich Nietzsche, every value can only be the value of a single reality. Throughout all of Nietzsche's philosophy one reads that reality does not exist independently outside of oneself, that "all reality is only itself interpretation," having one type of consciousness of reality.1 The manner in which thoughts and beliefs merge with the power structure of society, including values underlying factual statements, changes values and reality judgments.
The judgment and interpretation of the journalist is founded on the application of truth, morality and ethical wisdom. As Gans has demonstrated, this is heavily influenced by values. The mass media, particularly television, decisively affect and control our value judgments. Communication strategies are employed to convey and reinforce selective values and emphasize certain sets of behaviors and values over others. The soap opera gently trivializes serious problems through pseudo-realism.2 Likening the Hill-Thomas hearings to a soap opera, what images or character references were portrayed during the hearings? What was the affect of the presence of the camera on Hill and Thomas modifying their values, beliefs and behavior? The hearings illustrated how a variety of dramatic devices, melodrama and codes of clashes between good and evil, can convey moral messages to the viewer. Given the camera's capacity to observe and record a person's behavior to whatever manipulated degree, one must question the ethical implications the Hill-Thomas hearings?
What are the enduring principles a journalist should consult in making ethical judgments? The news contains values or preference statements which may suggest an image of society and the nation as it should be. If a news story concerns activities considered undesirable or containing negative connotations, the story implicitly expresses a value about what is desirable. The news story reporting of values being violated assumes the viewer shares these values, implying a consensus about values that may not exist.3 Norman Isaacs argues that journalists are often criticized for inaccuracy and bias. This Isaacs believes arises from their refusal to accept any concept of enduring values, which may result from the fact that the press has always been reactive, operating by instinct.4
The value of something is a type of relationship between an object and experiences of pleasure and displeasure. We feel many values that we know which belong to the world of our values, as well as values that exist without having been felt. The fact that a thing has value means that a value has been attributed to it in the form of a judgment. However, as Hans-Georg Gadamer points out, this cannot be reduced simply to an act of judgment. Gadamer argues that an individual's prejudice more so than his judgment constitutes the historical reality of his being. Judgment has a secondary quality, in the sense that it has been conceived by a series of cultural developments which are not purely rational.5 Max Scheler asserts that moral judgments are based on value and contends that judgments are "subjective," in that they are based on declarations of conscience taken as a matter of course. Some are of the opinion that by interchanging prejudice with prejudgment, it opens to interpretation that all human understanding is inevitably biased.6
In Nietzsche's terms, being moral or ethical means obeying ancient established law or custom. Those who as if by nature do what is moral are said to be "good." Being evil is being "not moral," practicing immorality and resisting tradition. The value of an object can be clearly and evidentially given apart from the granting of the bearer of the value. Thus, one can be "good" or "evil" without being able to explain how this comes about. Similarly, a work of art may be considered beautiful to the viewer, without an awareness of the elements of the work which evoke those feelings. Neither the experience nor evidence of values depend on the experience of the bearer of the values. The meaning of an object in relation to what it is may change without its value changing.7
Since journalists do not as a rule intentionally insert values into the news, these values must be inferred. Many different values may be assumed from what is seen or read, in that people have different preconceptions. Isaacs points out that many journalists question whether there is a consistent thread of true-value purpose in investigative journalism. Some believe that journalism in some aspects is one of the prime destroyers of values, in that it is so consumed by the passion to expose that it is sacrificing responsibility and accuracy.8
On Ethics
"Ethics can never replace individual conscience, nor should it." [Scheler]
Ethics is primarily concerned with the personal duties of an individual to himself and to others. The virtuous or ethical journalist accepts the performance of duties and respect for the rights of others as basic fundamentals of moral conduct. Journalists are responsible for practicing sound, professional journalism and exercising press freedom wisely in the public's interest. Their obligation to the public is to perform with intelligence, accuracy, objectivity and fairness, within the context of ethics of the organizations in which they work. Editors generally consider ethics to be primarily a matter of common sense, that things be handled in what is considered a fair and correct manner. Add to this, the journalist's individual ethics and self-imposed rules for covering news. Given the journalist's obligations, what then shapes a journalist's ethical thinking?
The subject of ethics has been debated for some 2,500 years. In ancient times "ethics" signified the doctrine of morals; a part of moral philosophy, specifically for those duties not coming under external laws. Ethics has also been depicted as the "theory of virtue." Aristotle asks what is good in terms of action, criticizing the Platonic idea of the good, pointing out that the equation of virtue and knowledge, the basis of Plato's and Socrates' "theories of virtue," is exaggeration.9
Aristotelian ethics is concerned with the right judgment of the role that reason has to play in moral action which, when doing what is morally right, is measured by sacrifice. In eighteenth century Germany, the concept of judgment was considered a basic intellectual virtue; its fundamental premise founded in "good sense" or "common understanding," which is characterized by judgment.10 Kant considers judgment to be an ability, since it is not taught in the abstract, can only be practiced from case to case and requires a principle to guide its application.
Ethics has been defined as a system of principles; a morality or code of conduct; the values and rules of life recognized by an individual, group or culture seeking direction as to what is good or bad, right or wrong. In the pursuit of applications of values and rules to daily life, different viewpoints in matters of ethics can develop in society among those who share basic values and principles. In his "categorical imperative," Kant argues that codes of conduct and morality must be arrived at through reason and be universally applicable to all societal environments.
The Hill-Thomas hearings could challenge our understanding of ethics, and of ethics as traditionally communicated by television. How do the hearings fit into the postmodern environment and what ethics did the hearings express? As a postmodern phenomena, consider the Hill-Thomas hearings in terms of authenticity. As an ethical phenomena, consider the hearings in terms of its embodiment of the concepts of values, truth, compassion and in terms of the ethical messages portrayed through the media.
Virtue is a moral constraint which presupposes the ability and desire to overcome a leaning toward evil on moral principle. Virtues, expressed in terms of character traits, such as fairness, truthfulness, courage and justice, help one live out the principles of an ethical system, the extent and range of which shape the ethical impact of one's life. How should one behave toward those who are moral or immoral; the learned or illiterate; members of "polite" society or those "outside" of society? How should one behave in accordance with differences in status, age, race and gender? These questions yield different ways of applying ethical obligation. As Kant states, "virtue is the only way." Kant considers virtue the "moral perfection" of man, combining power, strength, force and the conquest of inclination.11
As Kant writes, virtue implies that in an encounter with immoral inclination, moral disposition is possessed of such strength that it always triumphs. For Alasdair MacIntyre "virtues are...those dispositions which will not only sustain practices...but which will also sustain us in the relevant kind of quest for the good, by enabling us to overcome the harms, dangers, temptations and distractions which we encounter...."12 Baudrillard argues that because inclination is the determining factor of choice, the human will must acquire strength in making choices, to restore the capacity for free choice.13 Aristotle focuses on responsibility of the individual for taking virtuous action through free choice, contending that an individual can live the good life only through contribution to a good society.
Kant points out that because the basis of virtue is principle and not instinct, to practice virtue is to act on principles, providing them with force so that they become dominant. Kant does not view virtue as a duty, for then one would have to be obligated to have it. He contends that only a virtuous disposition can lead one to adopt ends on the basis of duty. In turn, fulfillment of duties of virtue strengthens virtuous disposition.14 Since virtue extends to the disposition from which the action arises, one must be aware of the external acts to the morality of the disposition. To be ethical, behavior must include a disposition to refrain from wrongdoing, not from fear of punishment, but because the action is offensive.15
Journalists have a duty to treat people fairly and respect their autonomy and integrity, without manipulating and interfering with their freedom. The most difficult decisions for journalists involve the resolution of conflict, or the tension between disclosure and privacy, between the public's right and need to know. Kant would place responsibility with the journalist to reason what is good, believing that moral worth of an act is determined by intention, not consequence. He considers it a "cardinal virtue" for the journalist to follow rational duty to tell the truth. Conscience, for Kant, is the inner judge of all free actions, and must be thought of as the subjective principle of being accountable to God for one's deeds.19 Kant argues that consciousness of man's ability is gained through awareness of his duty. He should not question his ability to determine what "ought" to be done, but listen to the "voice of practical reason," which guides behavior as to what ought to be done.20
One can argue not only for one approach to the ethics of journalism but rather, to show how a framework of principles can aid decision making in a manner which fosters ethical behavior. Principles should reflect journalism which seeks and reports the closest truth about events, collects and handles information honestly and fairly, and treats those involved with compassion. The issue of ethics is a complex one for the journalist, who must think and perform within a multi-dimensional ethical mindset. One could argue that ethical behavior demands a constant awareness of the always-changing finite systems.
In examining the basic assumptions that journalists make about what they do, one must acknowledge that they have an obligation not to do some of the things the First Amendment gives them the right to do. Many journalists contend that they just keep reporting the news as they see it. But, one may ask, how does the journalist see? With wide ranging or tunnel vision; with compassion or with ruthlessness? Compassion might dictate that one not report certain things. While it might be compassionate for a journalist to suppress a story, it could have a negative impact on the credibility of the newspaper. Journalists often face a dilemma when having to decide whether to substitute compassion for dispassion.
In Kant's view, compassion is for all of humanity rather than the individual. Responsibility lies within truth forming the basis of human community, whether one has control over the consequences of a moral act or not. Kant considers all feelings relative to ethics to be sensible feelings, with the exception of the feeling of respect which he calls spiritual, "effected by moral law." One could then say that feelings of compassion are excluded as morally relevant determinants of willing and acting and as carriers of moral values.21
For Schopenhauer, the moral incentive of compassion which "desires another's good" is "the basic phenomenon" of ethics from which humanitarianism and justice originate. To "do unto others" is compassion ruled by egoism, a compassion for others and for oneself. Wolfgang Schirmacher speaks of the faces of compassion and the interpretations to be drawn therefrom. The face of "occasional" compassion, a compassion toward those removed from us, emanates from a moral incentive of egoism, and benefits a particular occasion. Schopenhauer talks of "compassion" as being guided by religion, reason, egoism and malice; culturally defined and influenced by a desire for one's good or another's harm. This Schirmacher would call the "face of a doctrine of compassion," formed by adherence to a creed or religion, also drawn from egoism and emanating from one's desire to prove oneself moral. The "face of practical compassion" is comprised of the effects of one's actions and one's failure to act.22 How then does one perceive compassion free of value judgment?
To say that one possesses "compassion" would assume a warmth of heart toward another, a sharp clarity of their needs and pain, a sense of the fragility of each being, a sense of sympathy or caring for the suffering person, and a continued determination to do all that is necessary to help relieve their suffering. Avalokiteshvara, the Buddha of Compassion, is often represented in Tibetan iconography as having a thousand eyes to see all the pain and a thousand arms to reach out to assist the entire universe. Buddhist teaching shows a "logic" of compassion, which is based on a clear sense of reasoning whose truth becomes more visible as it is followed and tested.23
Man's actions, in practice, are deeply uncompassionate and often result in frustration. To be true, compassion must be active; compassion is greater and nobler than pity, which is rooted in fear and a sense of disdain. "When your fear touches someone's pain it becomes pity; when your love touches someone's pain it becomes compassion."24 Fearless compassion fuels the lives of those who wish to be of help to others. Dedicating oneself to taking on the suffering of others destroys the attachment to a false self. To understand the "wisdom" of compassion is to see the benefits as well as detriments from the lack thereof, and to draw a clear distinction between what is in one's "ego's self-interest" and one's "ultimate interest."25
There are two ways that compassion can be directed toward alleviating the suffering of others and developing a sense of responsibility toward this goal. Firstly, the major premise in all that one does, all thoughts, words and deeds should consider the benefit of others. Secondly, one's compassion should be directed to others through commitment of positive action to their welfare and enlightenment. For self-appreciation, there can be no greater association than the practice of compassion. It is the dedication to others, taking on the suffering of others rather than revering oneself, together with an ego-free wisdom, which most effectively and completely destroys the attachment to a false self--this is compassion. In Tibetan tradition, compassion is seen as the source and essence of enlightenment and the heart of the enlightened activity.26
On compassion, Kant would say that when one suffers, although you cannot help him, you let yourself in thought be inflicted with his pain, then you share his suffering, although only the other is affected. While it is not one's duty to share the suffering and joy of others, it is one's duty to sympathize in their fate. It is, therefore, an indirect duty to cultivate compassionate feelings and use them as a means to sympathy based on moral principles and the feeling appropriate to them.27
This postmodern analysis looks for elements of compassion which can be differentiated from elements of normal morality.
The postmodern way, is not to imply morality through action, but to differentiate actual ethical elements from the meanings under normal circumstances. On the face of the ethics of compassion, observe and consider the manifestations of compassion as evidenced in the Hill-Thomas hearings. While it was reported that Thomas faced strong opposition in the black community due to his political ideology,28 it is possible that those who did oppose his nomination began to feel compassion for him.
Many journalists struggle with compassion as an ethical problem in the news business. They either do not see it as a major ethical issue or they have concern that the implication of the emotion might impede the primary mission of journalism. H. Eugene Goodwin has found that the issue of when and if journalists should show compassion toward people and news, is basically ignored in codes and operating standards. There is also a lack of written standards suggesting that compassion might be acceptable on occasion. It is reasonable to expect that journalists adhere to standards which include responsible behavior that would constitute fair, accurate and compassionate conduct.
A lack of compassion is at the base of many troubles journalists have with methods, privacy and other ethical areas. It results in superficial and misleading journalism, and has created the impression that journalists and the media are superior and uncaring. Humility and compassion in dealing with human beings involved in the news should be seen as virtues in a news professional.29 To maintain fairness and honesty in news reporting, Goodwin stresses the need for exercising compassion rather than making premature judgments.30
What is the relation between competence in journalism and morality? Must a good journalist be morally good as well? Is there a special "journalistic morality" that is disassociated from the standards of ordinary morality? How does the phenomenon of morality appear in thought, action and feeling? Is it ever present, consistent, a predictable indicator of an individual's behavior? Or, are moral standards and norms changeable, subject to the subliminal implicit influences of technology?
Nietzsche asserts that there are no moral facts; that morality is a construction placed upon certain phenomena, and that there are no moral phenomena, only moral interpretations of phenomena. Moral matters are matters of opinion, part of the world of appearance, having nothing to do with things in themselves. Morality is viewed by Nietzsche as providing a type of interpretation of "reality" or "actuality."31 He concludes that moral judgments make us falsify ourselves and become less real because they bypass reality and as a result lead us astray. Morality traps us in vain imaginings and makes us victim to an unforeseen and undesired actuality. As a result, as long as we act morally we miss possibilities that are real and allow "chance to become a law."32
Wherein does the principle of morality consist? If one were to ask "what is morally good and what is not," in terms of one's decision of what the goodness of the action is, the principle of discrimination would be called to question. If one were to ask "what is it that causes one to act in accordance with the laws of morality," the motive principle would be called to question. Understanding, wherein the ability to judge between right and wrong in actions lies, is the distinction between the objective principle of discrimination and subjective principle of performance.
For Foucault, an action is moral in itself by virtue of its positioning in a pattern of conduct; when it aims to establish a moral conduct conforming to rules, values and a manner of being representative of an ethical subject. He contends that all moral action involves a relationship with the self and the reality in which it is performed. An individual's position is defined according to rules he will conform to and the mode of being which will assist his moral goal.33 What is the moral standard that the Senate committee, guardians of morality, support and defend as they sit in judgment of the credibility of Hill and Thomas?
It may be that morality rests on fear of punishment or because moral behavior is in one's best interests, as Scheler reports. While the action then may be honorable, one could question whether the law has been fulfilled morally? If one is honest because of advantages to be derived from an act, it could be said that the ground for behavior is not moral.34
Michel de Montaigne, taking example as his thesis, argues that in matters of morality, differences in moral judgment occur with environment and are culturally based. Based on this premise, one could then argue against ethical judgments based on actions. Actions are dictated by customary example and decrees of authority from which, unless borrowed from experience, there is no ethical principle.35
Morality, or the real behavior of individuals in relation to rules and values, is comprised of values and rules of action which are derived from family, church and educational institutions; often explicitly taught in a diffused manner so that they counter-balance and correct one another. Morality consists in that an action should arise from the impulse of its own inner goodness; from one's innate ethical sense, wherein the right thing under the circumstances will be done. According to Schopenhauer, man's basic feeling toward others will determine his disposition toward moral virtue or moral vice. The determinant influence on his actions is based on the effect this comparison has in his individual character.36
There are many different ways to conduct oneself morally and as an ethical subject of action. Differences can have to do with what Michel Foucault calls the "determination of the ethical substance," the manner in which one has to shape oneself as the prime element of moral practice; the "mode of subjection," the manner in which one is obligated to put rule into practice, based on one's view of relation to rule; and "elaboration of ethical work," the manner in which one's conduct complies with rule and tries to transform rule into the ethical subject of one's behavior.37
The supreme principle of morality in Kant's "categorical imperative" tells us that what is right for one is right for another. Kant does not say what is right nor does he suggest conditions to which a moral principle must conform; he takes these things for granted. It has been argued that Kant is not dealing with the problem of the universalization of both moral judgment and moral reason. There is a consensus of agreement that any moral judgment leads to a moral principle, on the basis that if a particular moral judgment is true of a given action, then the same moral judgment must apply to similar actions performed in similar circumstances. Further, if a certain statement leads to a certain moral conclusion, then in all similar cases the same statement must lead to the same moral conclusion.38
According to Stephen Klaidman and Tom Beauchamp, morality is not merely contiguous to the professional activities of journalists, it is inherent to the idea of professional competence. They contend that "moral criteria are embedded in our very conception of competent journalistic practice," since standards of fairness and accuracy are moral dimensions of competence.39 Klaidman and Beauchamp point out that while a reflection of general competence in journalism is the ability to keep personal biases and beliefs out of a news story, it is also a moral consideration. Whether construed from a virtue-based or duty-based perspective, morality is a necessary requisite of a good journalist.
"Truth," as Kant describes it, must be the guiding principle in social communication, for "without truth social intercourse and conversation becomes valueless."40 Kant contends that truthfulness is in agreement with every admission or obstruction of the communication of truth; is dependent upon an established and authoritative power; and within the subjectivity of the individual, rests on the will to power of the thinker.41 Nietzsche represents that wherever truth is grasped at all, power is a mitigating factor. What is ordinarily understood as "truth?" What makes a true thing true? Does it come from sound common sense, from the obviousness of its considerations; or is truth a vague knowing or feeling?
The original meaning of "truth" comes from the Greek word "aletheia," meaning uncovering, taking out of concealment, disclosedness or unconcealment. Heidegger would argue that discovery is grounded in the disclosedness of the world, thus disclosedness or unconcealment is the most original meaning of truth. "Truth" for Aristotle, is a "likening" between things and the soul's experience of them. For Aquinas, "truth" is the correlation of intellect and thing, as Heidegger reports, adding that the essence of truth is in the correspondence between a judgment and its object.42 Foucault calls "truth" "a system of ordered procedures for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation and operation of statements," circularly linked with systems and effects of power which produce and sustain it.43
Nietzsche's theory of truth is that there is no truth that is not entertained in thought and believed. Conceived truth is not something independent, unconditioned and universal; instead, it is involved with the being of a living subject and the world that he has constructed. This world is in a constant process of temporal change, hence, one should not be deceived by what appears obvious and unquestionable. Truth has been considered an unalterable and incontestable being to be discovered. What in a person wills the "truth?" Why truth rather than untruth? Nietzsche would ask that we "allow untruth as a condition of life," for refusing false judgments is a promoter of truth. At the very least says Nietzsche, there must be belief in the truth, through which truth can become worthy of the search to reveal it, even if the belief itself is false.46 As Nietzsche states, "we don't believe that truth remains truth after it is unveiled."47
For Nietzsche, it seems that truth evolves in a life process of continuously changing illusion, appearing as an endless movement which always accepts a fixed and final truth, only to bring about its deception. If all truths are undergoing transformation, then truth is never an independent reality. Nietzsche emphasizes that the development of truth in relation to other life forces that threaten to destroy it must take effect within the world, in the realm of power of the "truth" thinkers, and with the motivation of knowledge provided by belief.48
It is Schopenhauer's contention that "the plain, unvarnished literal truth is striven for only in philosophy...."49 He tells us that the discovery of truth is prevented not by false appearance or weak reasoning powers, but by preconceived opinion, or prejudice, which obstructs the pathway to truth. It is possible to deceive by action, wherein one can lead others to draw a particular conclusion. In certain situations one need not tell the truth if, by doing so, it will lead to abuse by another who will make wrong use of the truth. Untruth then cannot be said to be a lie, because the other knows that it will not tell the truth and has no right to demand it.50
Schopenhauer states that the "absolute truth is ultimately always only the relation between a judgment and a perception, hence, between the abstract representation and the representation of perception."51 An individual representation is a perception and because it is not an abstraction, cannot be the subject of a judgment. Schopenhauer claims that man often does not know whether he is right, although he often believes he is; adding that we usually do not know where the truth lies.52
Truth never did become an issue in the Hill-Thomas hearings. In a search for the truth, Thomas was asked to prove his innocence at the same time that Hill was asked to prove Thomas' guilt. The whole truth was not disclosed. While some would consider this effective in light of Thomas' confirmation, can this be considered ethical?
In pursuit of truth, journalists may hinder themselves if they become preoccupied with the effects and outcome of their work, for concentration on the effects of their work can interfere with the gathering of facts. The conditional rule to "tell the whole truth, except when doing so would endanger life," presents serious problems for journalists who want to abide by the truth in all cases. Who decides the conditions of truth? Lyotard contends that the conditions of truth, or the rules of the game, are immanent in that game. The only proof that the rules are ethical comes from the consensus extended by the experts. Who has the right to decide for society?53 How far should a journalist go ethically to perform the role of gatekeeper? At what point does engaging in deception justify the invasion of privacy? Obviously, the ethical journalist must consider all of the consequences of an action.
Journalists make different contributions to the same truth, yet that "truth" exists only in the newsroom or studio and depends upon the eyewitness for its authenticity. Authenticity and immediacy go hand in hand with objectivity, linking news values with qualities of television. Authenticity links with accuracy and genuineness, and immediacy with liveness, both of which are central to the experience of television, and operate in news to disguise the extent of interpretation that news involves.
According to Theodore Glasser, objectivity is a particular view of journalism and the press, a frame of reference used by journalists to orient themselves in the newsroom and the community. Objectivity itself is a value; also considered an ideology or a set of beliefs that function as the journalist's claim to action.54 How should journalists comply with the demand for objectivity? If objectivity is attainable, is it something journalists should pursue? In Schopenhauer's terms, man is great who in his work, whether it be practical or theoretical, pursues only an objective end and seeks not his own interest.
One of the definitions of objective reporting is that the reporter is a spectator and not a participant in what is being covered. The mission of the journalist is to intelligently select from available facts and communicate those facts as accurately as possible. Presentation of the facts is expected to be objective which demands that personal biases, emotions, interpretations and other subjective factors be excluded from the news. Objective reporting requires a dispassionate approach to the gathering and presentation of facts, to present the facts "as they are."55
Objectivity plays an important role in the ideology of news and the relationship that news attempts to set up with its audiences. The impossibility of objectivity and the resultant irrelevance of the notion of bias, assuming non-bias is possible, should not make one unmindful of the ideological role the concept of "objectivity" plays. Objectivity helps one understand three principal developments in journalism which contribute to the bias or ideology of news: it is biased against what is typically defined as the press' role in democracy, that of the watchdog; biased in that it is inherently conservative to the extent that it encourages reporters to depend on the status quo; and biased against independent thinking and the idea of responsibility.56
G.I. Berkeley believes that the objective "world" exists only in our representation, and to attribute an existence independent of the subject and outside the realm of representation is false. The objective has its existence in and is conditioned by the representation of a subject. Expanding on Berkeley's thinking, Schopenhauer, contends that every object, whatever its origin, is as object already conditioned by the subject and as such only the subject's representation.57 Baudrillard would agree, arguing that objective "reality" is only a coded form of perception of "realistic" values.58
Nietzsche points out that "objectivity" is the essence of scientific insight, made possible by the cooperation of various forces. This can be understood as the ability to keep one's views under control and bring them into, or keep them out of, play. The way to promote objectivity according to Nietzsche, is "to know how to make cognitive use of the variations in perspective and emotive meaning."59 A purely objective understanding of things is possible only when considered without personal participation in them. Consider how much emotion or passion obscures and falsifies knowledge. Every inclination colors and distorts not only judgment but the original perception of things as well. Schopenhauer contends that objective comprehension of a thing is possible only through alienation from that which is perceived.60
Objectivity and balance are the basic ethical tenets of journalistic practice. Gans has found that objectivity is reinforced by necessity: the need to protect journalistic credibility. A strictly objective journalism has been shown to be heavily influenced by occupational and societal values. If journalists were not viewed as being objective, stories would be criticized as resulting from journalistic bias and news would be distrusted more so than at present. Thus, objectivity is also a commercial consideration.61
Logic would prescribe that if one balances opposing views from responsible, institutionally legitimated sources, it can be assumed that truth will lie in between and objectivity will then be achieved. However, the center will be determined by how the extremes have been defined. In our system, mass media lie to the right of center. Thus, an objectively balanced mainstream could lie to the right of center.62 If we reject objectivity and balance because they do not provide an adequate solution to the ethical dilemma facing the media, is there a better basis for making standardized judgments in media practice? If truth and fairness are not found in the middle, then where do they lie?
Objective reporting virtually precludes responsible reporting, if by objective reporting one assumes a willingness on the part of the journalist to be accountable for what is reported. Objectivity requires only that journalists be accountable for how they report, not what they report. Since journalists are not responsible for the creation of news, how can they be expected to be accountable for the consequences of merely reporting it? Public interest in being fully informed demands that the press be afforded the freedom to report newsworthy events without assuming responsibility for them.
Glasser argues that objective reporting has deprived journalists of their creativity and imagination, taken away their passion and perspective; and transformed journalism into something more technical than intellectual by turning the art of storytelling into the technique of report writing.63 He believes that journalism needs to be independent from the pressures of objectivity. Glasser takes the position that objective reporting is more custom than principle and more habit of mind than standard of performance.64
There is need for change in our basic thinking, or rethinking, as traditional values, behavior and morality no longer prevail. On the state of ethics in the news business, there is disagreement about most ethical standards, goals and procedures, and just what constitutes an ethical or moral issue. There is agreement, however, on the goal of accurate and fair reporting and standards of separating information and opinion. On standards of accuracy and fairness and their relationship to journalism ethics, both are significant ethical standards in the sense that they mean being truthful in gathering and reporting facts and information, dealing with sources and reporting.
News is viewed as something journalists are compelled to report, not something they are responsible for creating. In journalism's attempt to be value and ideology free, journalists practice value exclusion which they pursue through objectivity, the disregard of implications and the rejection of ideology. The exclusion of values is a practical consideration in that it defends journalists against actual or possible criticism, and protects them against demands for censorship. Objectivity enables them to reach evaluative conclusions and state opinions, which most journalists see in positive terms, believing their role is to supply information that will enable viewers to reach their own conclusions. As long as their intent is to exclude conscious personal values, opinions become "subjective reactions" resulting from objectively gathered facts.65
According to Glasser, the essence of objectivity is that news is "out there" waiting to be exposed, uncovered or at the very least gathered. This is precisely why it is so difficult for journalism to consider questions of ethics and morality. Since news exists apparently independent of the reporter, the journalist can't be held responsible for it. Possessing values does not guarantee ethical behavior, nor does the capacity for certain forms of rationality guarantee moral reasoning.
Because of the diverse forms of press and the economic realities of the marketplace, it is unlikely that journalism can be governed by any universally agreed upon ethical standards. As Gans points out, requiring journalists to consider the effects of news, would require self-assessment of intent and surrender of their detachment. In practice, journalists are not free from implications which like objectivity exist to protect them from undue criticism.66 Most would agree that the public is better served when journalists perform well because of virtue-based moral behavior rather than because of sanctions, laws, rules and regulations.
The Hill-Thomas hearings portrayed through technology, how man can separate his inner and outer lives, and remove himself spiritually from his interaction with the world. As a result, man's relation to the world becomes less intimate as, through technology, he can objectify his relation with the world.
The Ethics of Compassion
"[C]ompassion for others is the most agreeable feeling
of power known to those who are without prospects of
great conquests."
[Nietzsche]
The Ethics of Morality
"If there is a morality, it is also caught in the eccentric
cycle of its effects, it is itself ypermorality,just as the
real is hyperreal. This is no longer moral stasis, but moral ecstasy. It is in itself a special effect."
[Baudrillard]
The Ethics of Truth
"Perhaps nobody yet has been truthful enough about what "truthfulness" is."
[Nietzsche]
"Truth" is in a sense a collective experience in which "knowledge" is assimilated to consciousness, a consciousness that exists as a reality in the world, a reality that conforms to its image.44 The journalist's function is to mediate between "reality" and the "truth." The word "truth" has many dimensions, each of which a journalist must recognize and respect. Journalists should not only seek facts, but also the larger truths behind the facts, and be aware of and abide by the demands of factual, contextual, social truth and truthfulness in the news gathering process.45
Objectivity and News Reporting
"The more feelings about a thing we express in words and
the more eyes we can direct upon it, the more complete
our concept of the thing and the greater our objectivity becomes."
[Nietzsche]
Notes